History
City-states have been a powerful and enduring force in the history of human civilization. From the democratic experiments of ancient Greece to the bustling trading hubs of Renaissance Italy, city-states have shaped cultures, economies, and governance in ways that resonate even today. But the idea of a city-state is not just a relic of history or an exotic feature of modern microstates like Monaco or Singapore; it is a concept that was embedded in the foundation of the United States.
In the U.S., the creation of new states has been central to the nation’s growth and political evolution. While the original 13 colonies formed the bedrock of the Union, every additional state—including Hawaii and Alaska, the most recent additions in 1959—was created by acts of Congress. Most of these states were carved from vast territories, but others have emerged from existing states through a process enabled by the U.S. Constitution.
This constitutional mechanism, described in Article IV, Section 3, allows for the creation of new states with the approval of the state legislature involved and the consent of Congress. Historically, this process has been used in key moments of American history, whether it was the creation of Kentucky from Virginia in 1792 or the formation of West Virginia during the Civil War. These examples show that the U.S. has a long tradition of adapting its political geography to address representation, regional needs, and shifting population dynamics.
One of the earliest examples of the city-state concept in the U.S. is Washington, D.C. Although it is not a state, the District of Columbia was envisioned as a self-contained city with its own unique governance structure, distinct from the surrounding states. D.C. was designed to serve as the nation’s capital while operating under a form of autonomy that resembles the governance of city-states throughout history. The ongoing debates about D.C. statehood illustrate how city-focused governance remains a relevant issue today.
As the nation grapples with imbalances in representation and the undemocratic nature of institutions like the Senate and the Electoral College, the idea of creating new states from major cities offers a compelling solution. By leveraging the same constitutional process that has shaped the Union for centuries, the U.S. could introduce city-based states that reflect the realities of today’s population centers and political needs.
“New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new States shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.”
— Admissions Clause: Constitution of the United States, Article IV, Section 3
The U.S. Constitution provides a clear pathway for admitting new states into the Union, as outlined in Article IV, Section 3. This process requires the approval of the state legislature involved, if territory is being divided or transferred, and the consent of Congress. Over the years, this mechanism has been central to the nation’s growth, allowing the original 13 colonies to expand into the 50 states we have today. While most new states were formed from territories acquired through purchases, treaties, or annexations, several were created by splitting off from existing states—a critical precedent for the idea of city-based states.
Statehood in the United States followed a broad pattern that can be divided into several key periods. Early state admissions (1791-1821) focused on expanding the Union beyond the original colonies. States like Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were added, often balancing regional interests like free and slave states or enhancing western representation. During this era, the process of integrating new states from territories became standard practice, with territories achieving statehood as their populations grew and met the requirements for admission.
The period of westward expansion from 1821 to 1860 saw the rapid addition of states as settlers moved beyond the Appalachian Mountains and into the Midwest, South, and Far West. The Louisiana Purchase, Texas Annexation, and other territorial acquisitions opened vast lands for settlement, leading to the admission of states like Missouri, Texas, and California. This expansion was often driven by the need to maintain political balance in the Senate, as the debate over slavery grew increasingly intense. The addition of new states during this time significantly shaped the nation’s sectional divide and set the stage for the Civil War.
After the Civil War, from 1861 to 1912, the pace of state admissions accelerated as the country solidified control over western territories. States like Nevada, the Dakotas, and Colorado were admitted during and after Reconstruction, often for strategic or political reasons. The rapid admission of these states was crucial in securing Republican dominance in the Senate during this period, as many of the new states leaned Republican and had small populations, giving them disproportionate influence in the Senate and Electoral College. By 1912, with the admission of Arizona and New Mexico, the continental U.S. had been fully mapped out in terms of state boundaries.
The modern era of statehood culminated with the admissions of Alaska and Hawaii in 1959. These states were strategically important during the Cold War and marked the final chapter in the expansion of the United States. Alaska brought natural resources and military significance, while Hawaii extended America’s presence into the Pacific. These last additions slightly shifted the balance of power in the Senate and the Electoral College but represented a symbolic moment, as the nation officially reached 50 states.
History of New States
The history of state creation in the U.S. includes several notable examples of states being formed through splits from existing states. In total, four states were created this way: Kentucky, Tennessee, Maine, and West Virginia. These splits fall into distinct categories: states formed due to geographical and administrative isolation from their original state (Kentucky and Tennessee), states created as part of national political compromises (Maine), and states formed during extraordinary circumstances, such as the Civil War (West Virginia). Additionally, the retrocession of land from D.C. back to Virginia was driven by local economic and political concerns, showcasing how borders can be adjusted when communities feel disconnected from their governance structures.
The time frame for these state splits ranges from 1792 to 1863, driven by factors like geographic isolation, cultural differences, economic grievances, and national political needs, such as balancing free and slave states. While no state splits have occurred since the Civil War, the Constitution still allows for future divisions, as seen in Texas’s provision to split into multiple states. These historical examples demonstrate the adaptability of the U.S. political system, setting important precedents for modern proposals to realign state boundaries based on current demographic and political realities.
Kentucky Split from Virginia (1792)
The history of Kentucky’s statehood is rooted in its origins as part of Virginia, specifically as a single large administrative unit known as Kentucky County. Established in 1776, Kentucky County encompassed nearly all of what is today the state of Kentucky. As settlers poured into the region, drawn by fertile land and new opportunities, the county quickly became densely populated compared to other parts of Virginia.
Kentucky’s path to statehood began in the late 18th century, when settlers in the region found themselves isolated from the government of Virginia. The Appalachian Mountains formed a natural barrier, making communication and governance difficult. As a result, local leaders began advocating for separation from Virginia and the creation of an independent state. Between 1784 and 1790, a series of conventions were held in Danville, Kentucky, where delegates discussed statehood and the terms of separation from Virginia.
Virginia ultimately agreed to the separation, recognizing the region’s distinct needs and the logistical challenges of governing it from Richmond. In 1792, Kentucky officially became the 15th state, marking the first time a new state was carved out of an existing one. The process set an important precedent for the creation of future states, highlighting the constitutional mechanism of state division under Article IV, Section 3. Kentucky’s admission also underscored the westward expansion of the young nation, as settlers pushed beyond the original colonies into the frontier.
Tennessee Split from North Carolina (1796)
Tennessee’s journey to statehood began with its origins as part of North Carolina’s western territories. After the Revolutionary War, North Carolina ceded these western lands to the federal government, leading to the creation of the Southwest Territory in 1790. The territory was governed by officials appointed by President George Washington, but the settlers in the region increasingly sought self-governance and statehood.
The population grew rapidly as settlers moved westward, and by 1796, the region met the population requirements for statehood. The territorial government drafted a state constitution, and Congress approved Tennessee’s admission as the 16th state. Tennessee’s creation followed a similar pattern to Kentucky’s, reflecting the broader trend of westward expansion and the practical difficulties of governing distant frontier lands. The addition of Tennessee also continued the careful balancing of regional interests in the early Republic, as new states were often admitted with an eye toward maintaining the balance between northern and southern states.
Maine Split from Massachusetts (1820)
Maine’s separation from Massachusetts is one of the most significant state splits in U.S. history, occurring as part of the Missouri Compromise in 1820. For decades, the people of Maine had grown increasingly frustrated with being governed as a distant region of Massachusetts. Geographical isolation, cultural differences, and economic grievances fueled a strong movement for independence. However, attempts to separate Maine from Massachusetts stalled due to opposition from political leaders in Boston who did not want to lose control of the region.
The issue of Maine’s statehood became intertwined with the larger national debate over slavery. As Missouri sought admission as a slave state, northern politicians demanded that Maine be admitted as a free state to maintain the delicate balance of power in the Senate. The result was the Missouri Compromise, a deal brokered in Congress that allowed Maine to be admitted as a free state in 1820 while Missouri was admitted as a slave state. The compromise also established the 36°30′ line, above which slavery would be prohibited in future territories. Maine’s statehood, therefore, not only addressed regional grievances but also played a critical role in the escalating conflict over slavery in the United States.
West Virginia Split from Virginia (1863)
The creation of West Virginia during the Civil War is perhaps the most dramatic example of a state splitting from an existing state. The process was driven by deep political and cultural divisions within Virginia over the issue of secession. When Virginia voted to secede from the Union in 1861, the northwestern counties, where Unionist sentiment was strong, refused to go along. Delegates from these counties formed a “Restored Government of Virginia” that was loyal to the Union, and they began the process of forming a new state.
The U.S. Congress recognized this government as the legitimate government of Virginia and approved the formation of West Virginia as a new state in 1863. However, the creation of West Virginia raised significant constitutional questions, as it involved the formation of a new state without the consent of the original state’s government (which was aligned with the Confederacy). The situation was resolved by treating the Unionist government as the legitimate authority. After the war, the Supreme Court upheld the legality of West Virginia’s statehood, cementing the precedent that state boundaries could be redrawn under extraordinary circumstances. The admission of West Virginia also had a strategic impact on the Civil War, providing the Union with control over key transportation routes in the region.
District of Columbia
The District of Columbia was conceived as a unique federal district to serve as the nation’s capital, independent of any state’s influence. The Residence Act of 1790 designated land along the Potomac River, drawing from both Maryland and Virginia, to establish a capital district. The federal district was officially created in 1791 and included parts of Montgomery and Prince George’s Counties in Maryland, as well as Fairfax County and the city of Alexandria in Virginia. The District was, in essence, the original city-state in the U.S., designed to have the autonomy necessary for housing the federal government without relying on state authority.
The Virginia portion of the district included the economically significant city of Alexandria. However, as development of the capital focused on the northern portion near the White House and Capitol, Alexandria and the surrounding areas in the southern part of the district felt neglected. Economic stagnation, combined with the loss of voting representation in Virginia, led to growing dissatisfaction among Alexandria’s residents. This discontent fueled a push for retrocession—the return of the Virginia-ceded land back to the state. Congress approved the retrocession in 1846, and the territory was officially returned to Virginia.
The movement for the District to achieve full statehood has gained momentum in recent decades. Proponents argue that the district’s more than 700,000 residents deserve full voting representation in Congress and the autonomy that comes with statehood. The district’s license plates famously carry the slogan “Taxation Without Representation” to highlight the frustration of residents who pay federal taxes without having voting members in Congress. In 2021, the U.S. House of Representatives once again passed legislation to admit D.C. as the 51st state, following a long history of local advocacy for statehood. The vote reflected strong support from D.C. residents, who have consistently favored statehood in referendums, including a 2016 vote in which 86% of voters backed the proposal.
While not yet a full state, D.C. demonstrates how a major urban center can function independently within the United States. If granted statehood, the District would exemplify the modern city-state concept, balancing self-governance with national significance and offering a model for other cities seeking greater autonomy.